Therapeutic cloning — Using adult stem cells to produce embryonic stem cells and differentiating them to produce a required cell type Banner 12
HOMEOSTASIS – The process of maintaining the constant internal environment
Nervous System and the Hormonal System
Homeostasis is important for the enzymes as the enzymes control all the reactions of the body and they need optimum condition to work.
NEURONES
Motor Neurone
- Motor Neurones connect the CNS to the Effectors
- Takes impulses away from CNS
- Motor neurones sends the message from the central nervous system to the effectors.
Sensory Neurone
- Sensory Neurones connect sense organs with the Central Nervous System.
Relay Neurone
- Relay Neurones are present in the CNS and occur between the sensory and motor neurons for distant transmission of Impulses.
- Found in CNS
- Connect Sensory and Motor Neurones
Banner 3
REFLEX ACTIONS
- It is the automatic response of the body to a stimulus.
- In reflex action the message from the sensory neurones is passed to the spinal chord instead of brain.
- Spinal Chord sends the message to the effectors and produce a response
Example: Knee Jerk Reflexes,
- Touching hot object, Sudden closure of light with bright light
- It is rapid
- It is quick Automatic, Instantaneous without conscious thoughts
Stimulus
Receptor
Spinal Chord
Motor neurones
Effector
Response
SYNAPSE
Message is transmitted by chemicals
BRAIN – It is the Central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the command and Control System.
CEREBRUM (Cerebral Hemisphere) – It is nearly 80% part of the brain
- Consciousness
- Memory
- Intelligence
- Language
CEREBELLUM – It lies behind the cerebrum and above the medulla oblongata. It is the second largest part of brain and is highly convoluted area which accommodates many neurons.
- Muscle Coordination
- Balance
MEDULLA OBLONGATA or oblong marrow is oblong cylindrical part of the brain. It forms the hindermost part of the brain.
- Unconscious Activities like Heart Rate, Breathing.
- Gut Movement
Banner 4
BRAIN SCAN
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) helps to take the Images of different parts of the brain and relating it with loss of functions of the individual
Problems
- Brain is complex
- Skull protects the brain
- Thousands and neurones and neurotransmitter are involved
- The functions of different parts is still not understood.
- Drugs do not reach the brain
Eye – It is lodged in orbit of skull, hollow, spherical organ, about 2.5 cm in diameter and about 6-8gram in weight
ACCOMMODATION- Ability of eye to adjust the focal length of the lens to make clear image of the objects lying at varying distances. It is a reflex mechanism and is done with the help of ciliary muscles and suspensory ligament.
For distant vision, ciliary muscle relax making the suspensory ligaments tensed which inturn make the lens thin so that the image is focussed on the retina.
For near vision, ciliary muscle contract making the suspensory ligaments to slack which inturn make the lens thick so that the image is focussed on the retina.
Banner 5
DEFECTS OF VISION
MYOPIA
- Short sightedness
- The image falls in front of the retina of the eye.
- Eye ball gets elongated
- corrected by concave lens
HYPERMETROPIA
- Long sightedness
- The image falls behind the retina of the eye.
- Eye balls gets shortened
- corrected by convex lens
NEW EYE TECHNOLOGIES
Contact Lenses
- Lenses are placed on the surface of the eye.
- Includes soft, silk and disposable lenses
- Can be used by any person at any age
Laser Surgery
- Laser is used to change the thickness or the curve of the cornea so that defects of vision can be corrected.
- Can be done on adults after the growing age.
Replacement Lens
- It involves either replacing the faulty lens or inserting the correct one with the faulty one.
- Include damage risk to the eye.
HORMONAL CONTROL
HORMONAL and NERVOUS SYSTEM
Hormones
- They are chemical messenger secreted by the endocrine glands
- they are secreted in the blood and travel to the target organ
- Target organ has receptors and hormones
- bind to the receptor and triggers a response
- It produces a slower but long term response
Nervous System
- Is the system of neurones which send electrical impulses to produce a response
- The message is transmitted via electrical impulses
- The response produced is localised and impulses do not travel large distances
- It produces quick but short term response
Baneer 6
PITUITARY : THE MASTER GLAND – Smallest endocrine gland of the body. It is pea shaped, ovoid, reddish brown gland situated at base of the brain in cavity, sella turcica of sphenoid bone. It controls almost all endocrine glands. Hence it is also called master gland
- Master Gland
- It controls other glands of the body
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone
- Antidiuretic Hormone
- Thyroid Stimulating Hormones
EXAMPLES
| GLAND | HORMONE | TARGET ORGAN | EFFECT |
| Pituitary | Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) | Ovaries Thyroid Gland Kidneys | make the female sex hormones estrogen stimulate the gland to release thyroxine which control metabolism controls the water level by causing reabsorption of water |
| Thyroid Gland | Thyroxine | Liver and Kidneys | Controls the metabolism |
| Adrenal Gland | Adrenaline | Liver and Heart | prepares for fight and flight |
| Testes | Testosterone | Male reproductive organs | Developes secondary sexual characterstics |
| Pancreas- | Insulin Glucagon | Liver Liver | Decreases blood glucose levels Increases blood glucose levels |
| Ovaries | Oestrogen Progesterones | Female reproductive organs | Controls the development of egg, menstural cycle and develop secondary sexual characteristics. |
Banner 7
CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE
- Pancreas Insulin and Glucagon (lowers the blood glucose level)
- Increases the blood glucose level)
- Insulin Effect
- It increases the permeability of cells to glucose
- It converts excess glucose to -glycogen
- It converts excess glucose to fats
- It stops the breakdown of fats
Glucagon ‘is the hormone
Glycogen is the stored carbohydrate
DIABETES
| TYPE 1 | TYPE 2 |
| Insulin dependent | Insuline independent |
| Body does not produce insulin | Body is resistance to insulin |
| Caused by damage to pancreas | Caused by poor lifestyle and diet |
| Treated with insulin injections | Treated with lifestyle changes |
| Most common in young age | Common in obese people |
| It can be genetic. | It is mostly environmental. |
| Drugs might not be required | Drugs are given to make body to respond to insulin |
Banner 8
DIABETES TREATMENT
TYPE 1
- Insulin injections directly into the blood stream.
- Less taken orally as being a protein hormone it can get digested by stomach.
- The insulin converts excess glucose into glycogen and control the blood glucose level.
- Less intake of carbohydrates.
- Pancreatic Transplant
- Pancreatic Cell Transplant
- Using stem cells to regenerate pancreatic cells.
TYPE 2
- Balanced diet
- Regular Exercise
- Weight Management
- Drug to increase sensitivity of pancreas to insulin
- Insulin injections to increase the concentration of insulin to make them more responsive to insulin.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
- When the level of anything rises above optimum like glucose concentration, water concentration or temperature negative feedback decreases it
- When the level of anything decreases below optimum the negative feedback raises it.
FIGHT OR FLIGHT HORMONE
- Stress Hormone
- Increase heart rate
- Increase breathing rate
- Dilate the pupil
Emergency Hormones
- Increase Blood Flow
- Increase the flow of oxygen to the brain
- Divert blood flow away from the gut
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
TESTOSTERONE
Male hormone responsible for secondary sexual characters
OESTROGEN
Female hormone responsible for secondary sexual characters
MENSTURATION CYCLE
| Days | Phase | Development |
| Day 1- Day 4 | Mensturation | Shedding of the uterus linning along with the egg. Progesterone falls |
| Day 5- Day 14 | Follicular Phase | Egg is matured in the ovary. Increase in FSH |
| Day 14 | Ovulation | Egg is released. Caused by Lutenizing Hormone |
| Day 14-Day 28 | Luteal Phase | Increase in progesterone and oestrogen which maintains the uterus linning and wait for eggs to fertilize. If not fertilize in next 14 days linning breaks. |
HORMONES OF MENSTURATION
| Hormone | Gland | Effective Days | Effect |
| Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) | Pituitary | Day I-Day 14 | Maturation of egg in the follicle. Stimulate the production of Oestrogen |
| Lutenizing Hormone (LH) | Pituitary | Day 14 | Cause Ovulation |
| Oestrogen | Ovaries | Day 14-Day 28 | Develops uterus lining. Stimulates LH and inhibit FSH |
| Progesterone | Empty egg follicle in the ovaries | Day 14- Day 28 | Maintains linning of uterus and prepare for pregnancy. Inhibits both LH and FSH So no mensturatlon happen during pregnancy. |
CONTRACEPTION METHODS
Preventing Sperms to reach the egg. Preventing the implantation of the zygote in the uterus.
Barrier Methods: Prevent the sperm to meet the eggs
Hormonal Methods: Prevents the eggs to mature or prevent the implantation of eggs in the uterus.
Chemical Methods: Kills the sperm
Intrauterine Device: Prevent embryo from implanting
Surgical Method: It is permanent contraception
HOW CONTRACEPTION WORKS?
Contraceptive Pills
- They contain the mix of female hormones oestrogen and progesterone. -MIX PILL
- Prevent the release of FSH preventing the maturation of eggs
- Make thick mucus in the cervix to prevent the entry of sperms.
- Prevent the uterus linning development, preventing implantation.
- Some pills are progesterone only pills.
- A contraceptive implant is also inserted which slowly release progesterone in the uterus.
- A contraceptive patch also absorbs the mix of hormones into the blood
- Side Effects: blood pressure, has to be taken daily changes in menstural pattern
Contraceptive Pills
- They contain the mix of female hormones oestrogen and progesterone. -MIX PILL
- Prevent the release of FSH preventing the maturation of eggs
- Make thick mucus in the cervix to prevent the entry of sperms.
- Prevent the uterus linning development, preventing implantation.
- Some pills are progesterone only pills.
- A contraceptive implant is also inserted which slowly release progesterone in the uterus.
- A contraceptive patch also absorbs the mix of hormones into the blood
- Side Effects: blood pressure, has to be taken daily changes in menstural pattern
Intra Uterine Device
- Copper T is inserted into the uterus
- It releases copper ions which are toxic to sperms
- The device also prevent the implanting of the embryo into the uterus
- Some releases progesterones which works the same like contraceptive pills
- Prevent the release of FSH preventing the maturation of eggs
- Make thick mucus in the cervix to prevent the entry of sperms.
- Prevent the uterus linning development, preventing implantatiom
- Side Effects: Infection; Internal Bleeding
Surgical Methods
VASECTOMY: Male Sterlization
- Sperms ducts are cut and sealed so that the sperms cannot enter the urethra preventing fertilization.
TUBECTOMY: Femal Sterlization
- The oviducts are cut and tied to prevent the release of egg which prevent
- Sterlizatlom
- Side Effects – It is permanent.
INFERTILITY PROBLEMS
OVULATION PROBLEM
- The eggs do not mature or problem ovulating.
- The women is given fertility drugs which are the mix of FSH and LH that stimulated maturation and ovulation
FAULTY TUBES
IMPLANTATION
- In Vitro Fertilization where fertilization is performed in the laboratory and the embryo is implanted back in the uterus for the development
PREGNANCY DEVELOPMENT
- Surrogate Mother where the fertilized egg is implanted into another mother who gives birth
IN VITRO FERTILIZATION
- Expensive
- Results in multiple embryos
- Premature births
- Birth with disability
- Not always successful
Fertility drugs to stimulate ovulation
Ovary and sperm are collected to perform fertilization.
Fertilized egg is developed in the laboratory giving suitable conditions to develop into an embryo.
Embryo is inserted into the uterus
Develops into a baby.
Plant Hormones
Auxin is produced in the shoot tip. When light falls on auxin it is displaced to the shader side promoting growth of the shader region resulting in growth of shoot towards light.
Gravitropism – The movement of roots towards gravity.
- It is also caused by auxin. In roots auxin inhibits the growth of the roots at the lower side resulting in bending of the root downwards.
- Auxin is displaced to lower side in response to gravity.
PLANT HORMONES
AUXINS
- It stimulates cell divsion and growth of the plant
- It is used to stimulate rooting in tissue culture.
- Used as Weedicide causing excess growth of the weed and killing them.
GIBBERLINS
- Seed germination
- Promote flowering
- End seed dormancy
- Elongation of stem.
ETHENE
- It is a gaseous hormone
- It is involved in fruit ripening
- Allows transportation of raw fruit to long distances and then they can be ripped by ethene.
Cytokinin
Caused Cell Division
Abscicic acid
Stress hormone prepared the plant for stress conditions
Banner 9
WASTE PRODUCTS
The products produced during metabolic reactions like respiration, digestion etc.
Carbon Dioxide
- Produced during respiration.
- Is excreted out through the lungs by the process of expiration
- Carbon dioxide is harmful as it can alter the pH of the blood affecting enzyme activity.
Water
- Produced during respiration and digestion process.
- Is excreted through skin in the forms of sweating or some by breathing and by kidney in the form of urine.
- Water can also disturb the osmotic balance and salt level of the body.
Urea
- Produced by the liver by metabolising excress proteins as it is toxic and cannot be stored.
- It is excreted by Kidney in the form of Urine.
HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
ULTRAFILTRATION
- Kidneys filters the blood at a very high pressure.
- All the water, glucose, and useful components gets into the kidney filtrate. The blood cells and blood proteins due to their bigger Size are not filtered.
SELECTIVE REABSORPTION
- Since the kidney contains useful substance in the filtrate it reabsorbs back them into the blood.
- The water also gets reabsorbed depending on the needs of the body.
OSMOREGULATION
DIALYSIS
- Artificial Kidney blood flows into the dialysis machine which contains dialysis fluid.
- Dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of essential minerals ions,as that of blood but no urea.
- As blood flows into the dialysis fluid, urea is diffused out along the concentration gradient and excess salt is also removed maintaing the normal salt and mineral ions level.
- The clean blood is then pumped back.
- Lifestyle changes, regular visits, change in diet and regular expenditure are some of the disadvantages.
Banner 10
KIDNEY TRANSPLANT
- Replacing diseased kidney with the healthy one.
- The donor should be a close relative to prevent rejection.
- The person has to be on Immuno – suprresant drugs so that the body immune system does not reject it.
- Does not last long and person is prone to other infectious diseases due to immuno suppresant drugs.
DIALYSIS KIDNEY TRANSPLANT
DIALYSIS
Advantages
- No surgery
- No infection
- No immuno supressant drugs
- Easyily available
Disadvantages
- Lifestyle changes
- Regular visits and long procedure
- Restricted Diet
KIDNEY TRANSPLANT
Advantages
- No regular visit
- No lifestyle changes
- No diet restriction
Disadvantages
- Does not last forever
- Chances of rejection
- Immuno supressant drugs to be taken
- Person is more prone to infections.
- Finding a suitable donor is a problem
Banner 11
KEY TERMS
- Homeostasis – Homeostasis is the process of an organism to maintain a stable internal environment adequate to sustain life.
- Receptors – Receptor is any cell or organ of an animal capable of detecting a stimulus is a change in the external or internal environment and which subsequently brings about a response in the behavior of the animal.
- Effectors – Effector is any muscle, gland or an organ capable of responding to a stimulus, particularly a nervous impulse.
- Stimulus – A biological stimulus is any external change in the environment that can be detected by an organism.
- Neurones – These are structural and functional Units of Neural System. Each Neuron consists of the cell body (cyton) and nerve fibre (axon)
- Central Nervous System – Consists of Brain and Spinal cord
- Sensory Neurones – These connect sense organs with the Central Nervous System.
- Motor Neurones – These connect the CNS to the Effectors
- Relay Neurones – These are present in the CNS and occur between the sensory and motor neurons for distant transmission of Impulses.
- Reflex Arc – The path followed by the stimulus (impulse) from beginning to end is the reflected arc.
- Brain – It is the Central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the command and Control System.
- Cerebral Cortex – Grey matter forms 2-4mm thick outer cortex of cerebrum called cerebral cortex
- Cerebellum – literally means little cerebrum. Cerebellum has grey matter on outer side and made of three layers of cells and fibres. 2nd largest part of the brain.
- Medulla – directly controls some ANS responses, such as heart rate, respiration, dilation of blood vessels, digestion, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting. It is a part of the brain stem, located just below the prominence and just above the spinal cord.
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) – It helps to take the Images of different parts of the brain and relating it with loss of functions of the individual
- Eye – Hollow spherical organ, about 2.5cm in diameter and about 6-8gm in weight. It is lodged in orbit of skull.
- Blind Spot – The spot on the retina which has no receptor.
- Accomodation- Ability of eye to adjust the focal length of the lens to make clear image of the objects lying at varying distances. It is a reflex mechanism and is done with the help of ciliary muscles and suspensory ligament.
- Ciliary Muscles – help in accommodation and ciliary process that secrets aqueous humour.
- Iris – Visible coloured portion of the eye, contains two types of muscles- circular and radial.
- Pupil – In front of the lens the aperture surrounded by the iris is called the pupil.
- Myopia – Also known as near sightness or short sightness. Near object is Clear. Far object is not clear. Eyeball become longer.
- Hypermetropia – long sightness. Far object is clear, near object is not Clear. Eyeball becomes short.
- Endocrine System – the endocrine system consists of glands widely separated from each other with no direct anatomical links. Also called ductless glands
- Hormones – Hormones are the chemical substances produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity of some cells or organs.
- Adrenaline – It is a hormone released by the adrenal glands and its main action, along with norepinephrine, is to prepare the body to “fight or flee”.
- Insulin – Secreted by Pancreas, is a small protein whose molecule consists of two polypeptide chains
- Pituitary Gland – Smallest endocrine gland of the body. It is Pea shaped, ovoid, reddish brown gland situated at base of the brain. It controls almost all endocrine glands. Hence it is also called master gland.
- FSH – Follicle Stimulating Hormone. In males stimulates spermatogenesis. In females growth of ovarian follicles upto ovulation.
- Oestrogen – stimulation of growth and activities of female secondary sex organs, development of growing ovarian follicles, mammary gland development.
- Progesterone – it acts on the mammary glands and stimulates the formation of alveoli, milk secretion and supports pregnancy.
- Glucagon – Glucagon is produced to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting and to increase very low glucose levels.
- Glycogen – Glycogen is the major carbohydrate storage form in animals, and corresponds to starch in plants.
- Diabetes – Diabetes is a disease in which your blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels are too high.
- Mensturation – Menstruation or your period is the shedding of the uterine lining once a month.
- Ovulation – the release of an egg from an ovary — occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle.
- Phototropism – It is the ability of a plant, or other photosynthesizing organism, to grow directionally in response to a light source.
- Gravitotropism – Gravitropism is a plant’s natural growth response to the effects of gravity.
- Auxins – Auxin is involved in cell growth and cell expansion
- Gibberlins – Gibberellins promote stem elongation between nodes on the stem.
- Dialysis – The process of removing waste products and excess fluid from the body.
- Selective Reabsorption – Selective reabsorption is the process by which some molecules (eg – Ions, glucose and amino acids), after having been filtered by capillaries together with nitrogen waste products (eg Urea) and water in the glomerulus, are reabsorbed by filtration as they pass through the nephron.
-
LIVING SYSTEM HIEARARCHY
CELLS
TISSUES
- Muscular tissue
- Epithelial tissue
- Glandular tissue
ORGANS
- Stomach, kidney, liver, pancreas, Heart
ORGAN SYSTEM
- Circulatory System,
- Digestive System
- Nervous System
- Excretory System
ORGANISMS
Digestion
It is the process of breaking down large insoluble food particles in the food into soluble small particles which can then be absorbed into the blood
Banner 4
DIGESTION PROCESS
INGESTION –
- It happens with the help of mouth and tongue
- Taking in of food with the help of mouth.
- The teeth and tongue helps in churning the food and mixing with saliva.
DIGESTION –
- It happens with the help of stomach, intestine , pancrease and liver
- Breakdown of large insoluble particle into small soluble ones
ABSORPTION –
- Small Intestine
- The process by which digested food particles are absorbed into the blood
ASSIMILATION –
- In the body cells
- Using the absorbed food for releasing energy and in body processes.
EGESTION –
- By rectum and Anus
- Getting rid of undigested food materials.
Banner 5
BILE JUICE
- It is the green yellow alkaline liquid which is produced in the liver and stored in the Gall Bladder.
- It performs two major Functions:
NEUTRALIZATION
- The food that comes from the stomach is acidic and the enzymes of the intestine can work in alkaline conditions.
- The bile neutralizes the food that comes from the stomach and makes it alkaline so that the enzyme released in the intestine can work effectively.
EMULSIFICATION OF FATS
- For lipase to work, the fat must be broken down into small droplets to increase the surface area for the lipase to function.
- The bile perform this function of emulsification of fats for the efficient working of lipase.
Baneer 6
COMPONENTS OF FOOD
| Food Component | Source | Monomer | Enzyme | Location | Function |
| Carbohydrates | Breads, pasta, Cereals; Rice | Sugars | Carbohydrase eg Amylase | Mouth and small intestine | Principal source of energy Fuel for respiration Storage molecules like starch and glycogen Structure molecule like cellulose |
| Proteins | Pulses, chicken Meat, poultry Eggs, Beans Nuts | Amino Acids | Protease | Stomach and small intestine | Components of muscles. Required for growth and repair. components of enzymes Hormones like insulin |
| Fats | Butter, Oil; Margarine, | Fatty Acids + Glycerol | Lipase | Small Intestine | Insulates the body Reserve source of Energy components of cell membrane |
ENZYMES
- They are biological catalyst that increases the rate of a biological reaction without being used up.
- They increases the rate of the reaction by providing an alternative route that works by lowering the activation energy.
- They are protein in nature so they are sensitive to heat and pH.
LOCK AND KEY MODEL
Enzymes are highly specific due to the active site. As the active site has a shape complimentary to the substrate. So the specific substrate molecule can fit into the active site of the enzyme.
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION
ENZYME CONCENTRATION
FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY
Temperature
| Denaturation is the change in the shape of the enzyme with increase in temperature and pH beyond optimum which results in the change in shape of the active site As a result, substrate molecules can no longer fit into the active site decreasing the rate of the reaction. |
- Rate of reaction increases as particles gain kinetic energy and they collide more increasing
- The optimum temperature. It is the point where the enzyme activity is the highest.
pH
- Different enzymes has different pH optimum.
- Stomach enzymes works in acidic conditions which are maintained by hydrochloric acid Intential enzymes works in alkaline pH maintained by bile
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The system that provides the bosy with oxygen, nutrient, hormones and all the essential things required by the body to survive. It also eliminate the waste products.
PUMPING ORGAN
- It the heart that pumps the transporting medium all around the body.
- HEART
TRANSPXTING MEDIUM
- It is the blood which contains all the dissolved substances and oxygen required by the body.
- BLOOD
VESSELS
- They carries the blood from one part to another.
- ARTERIES
- VEINS
- CAPILLARIES
BLOOD
BLOOD PLASMA
- It is the liquid component of the blood.
- It makes 55% of the blood.
It is composed of:-
- Glucose
- Amino Acids
- Hormones
- Waste Products like Urea
- Carbon Dioxide
BLOOD CELLS
RED BLOOD CELLS
- It transport oxygen all around the body. It is a specialised cells
- Biconcave disc
- Increases the surface area for oxygen transport
- No nucleus
- To provide more room for oxygen contains haemoglobin
- Binds with oxygen to carry it around the body
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
- They are soldiers of the cells
- The protect the body from infections
- They are made up of lymphocytes which produce antibodies.
- They also have phagocytes which engulfs the pathogen
PLATELETS
- They are involved in blood clotting
- They have fibrin proteins which forms the mesh around the blood
NEED FOR CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
LOW SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
- Multicellular organisms due to their bigger size have very low surface area to volume ratio.
- As a result, diffusion alone is not effective to meet the demands of the cell so it requires a circulatory system.
METABOLICALLY ACTIVE
- The multicellular organisms are metabolically active. So they need constant supply of oxygen and food and constant removal of waste products.
MULTICELLULAR
- Being multicellular many cells are deep and the diffusion distance is larger.
- So they need a circulatory system that transport substance deep inside the cells.
DOUBLE CIRCULATON
- In One complete cycle the blood is pumped into the heart twice.
- It involves two circulation: Pulmonary: Circulation between Lungs and Heart
- Systemic Circulation: Circulation between heart and the body
- Double circulation makes the circulation more efficient by preventing the mixing of oxygenated blood and helps to alter the pressure from the different chambers of the heart
Banner 7
Heart
- Heart is the pumping organ
- Working all day and night
- It has four chambers
- Atrium are at the top and Ventricles are at the bottom.
- Ventricles have thicker wall than the atrium.
- Left Ventricle have the thickest wall amongst all other chamber
BLOOD VESSELS
| ARTERIES | VEINS | CAPILLARIES |
| Carries the blood away from heart | Comes the blood to the heart | Connects arteries and veins |
| Has thick muscular elastic wall | Thin elastic wall | Once Cell thick |
| Narrow Lumen | Wider Lumen | Very small Lumen |
| They do not have valves | They have valves | They do not have valves |
| The blood flows at a high pressure | The blood flows at a lower pressure | The blood flows at a lower pressure. |
| They carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery. | They carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein | They carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. |
CORONORY HEART DISEASES
- Coronory Artery that supplies the blood to the arteries become narrow.
- The fatty materials like cholesterol gets deposited and narrow the artery.
- The narrowed artery reduced the blood flow to the heart.
- The blood flow to the heart is reduced.
- The heart do not get enough oxygen.
- This causes heart pain, chest pain and heart attack.
Treatment of Coronory Heart Disease.
- A Stent is placed with the baloon in the blocked artery.
- The blocked artery is opened by inflating the baloon.
- The metal mesh stent keep the stent in place.
- This resumes the blood flow.
- People can also be given statin which lowers the blood cholesterol and prevent the deposition of the cholestrol.
- The blood flow to the narrow artery is byepassed to the graft taken from another part of the body
Banner 8
PROBLEMS TO THE HEART
LEAKY VALVES
- Due to increases pressure of blood flow the valves start to leak.
VALVE REPLACEMENT
- The valves made up of metal or polymers or the biological valves from animals can be used to replace the faulty valve
IRREGULAR HEART BEAT
- The natural pacemaker which are the group of cells at the top of the right atrium that regulates the heart beat do not function properly.
ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER
- Electrical devices called the artificial pacemaker takes over the function of natural pacemaker.
HEART FAILURE
- When the heart do function properly
HEART TRANSPLANT OR ARTIFICIAL HEART
- Artificial heart or heart transplant from the donor.
HUMAN GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM
MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Banner 9
GAS EXCHANGE
ALVEOLI
GREATER SURFACE AREA
SHORTER DIFFUSION DISTANCE
STEEP CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
ORGANISATION IN PLANTS
CELLS
TISSUES
- Xylém and Phloem
- Palisade mesophyll tissue
- Spongy mesophyll tissue
ORGANS – Root, Stem and Leaves
ORGAN SYSTEM – Water Transport System
ORGANISM
TRANSPIRATION
- Transpiration is the loss of water from the surface of the leaves in the forms of water vapours.
- In plants it takes place through the stomata.
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION
MEASURING RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
- Potometer is the device which is used to measure the rate of water uptake or the rate of transpiration.
- The movement of bubble is an indicator of water movement which in turn shows the rate of transpiration
ADAPTATIONS TO LIMIT TRANSPIRATION
- Cuticle layer on the leaf which is waterproof prevent rate of transpiration
- Stomata are present on the lower surface to reduce rate of transpiration.
- Some plants stomata open is night and closes in day.
- In plants like cactus the leaves are reduced to spines to decreases the surface area for water loss.
- Some plants have sunken stomata.
Banner 10
Disclaimer:
I have tried my level best to cover the maximum of your specification. But this is not the alternative to the textbook. You should cover the specification or the textbook thoroughly. This is the quick revision to help you cover the gist of everything. In case you spot any errors then do let us know and we will rectify it.
References:
BBC Bitesize
Wikipedia
Wikimedia Commons
Image Source:
Wikipedia
Wikimedia
Commons
Flickr
Pixabay